In this essay, I will reflect on the research I have undertaken into intercultural music and how it has impacted my practice, playing, and creative process when composing. For this project, I have focused on two intercultural combinations – Indian music with Western music (principally Jazz) and Cuban and Brazilian music with Jazz. In exploring these cultures, I have encountered their wonderfully rich heritage and deep intricacies, with people dedicating lifetimes to learning about them. I have benefited greatly from this study, incorporating various elements from these cultures into my musical thinking. When discussing jazz, I will focus only on how it relates to intercultural elements and how those elements have shaped how I play and think about jazz music. 

Indian Music

Indian music is a vast topic, one I have only begun to scratch the surface of, with a huge amount of variety seen across history and across the different regions of India. It “has evolved into a rich tapestry of diverse styles” over the millennia it has existed, with its origins tracing back to the “Vedic era, where hymns of the Sama Veda combined melody with devotion” (Dey Aich, 2025:638).

Due to “the openness of Jazz,” there are numerous opportunities for “the adaptation of elements from many musical traditions” (Rossi, 2013), and Indian music is no exception, having deeply influenced not only jazz but Western music in general. This was largely “through the influence of Ravi Shankar” (Kalmanovitch, 2005:139). Whether through his “association with George Harrison of the Beatles” or his friendship with John Coltrane, to name just two musicians he impacted (Rossi, 2013). This longstanding relationship between jazz music and Indian music is one of the reasons I wanted to explore it more deeply.

There are (broadly) two distinct regions and musical cultures in India: Southern Indian ‘Carnatic’ music and Northern Indian ‘Hindustani’ music.  Whilst there has historically been a negative relationship between the two, presently “there exists an atmosphere of mutual respect” in which “the northerners are willing to learn from the southerners and vice versa” (Massey & Massey, 1993:44). My composition features elements from both regions, with its rhythmic aspects being influenced by Carnatic elements and melodic/ harmonic aspects being influenced by Hindustani elements. Both have influenced my wider understanding of music, deepening the understanding I already possessed and showing me new ways to think about, play and make music.

Rhythmic influence

Carnatic music, specifically ‘konnakol’, has greatly impacted my understanding of rhythms and ability to articulate them. Konnakol is the art of using “syllables… to ‘sing’ a rhythmical phrase” (Reina, 2016: xiv). It “allows for the composition, performance, and communication of rhythms in Carnatic music” (Romero, 2023). As Asaf Sirkis (2019a), a brilliant Israeli drummer who has studied konnakol in great depth, says of konnakol: it is “a very, very, very powerful tool that can be applicable for western music”. And being able to take this art form and utilise it as such within my study of jazz music has greatly developed my timing, feel and rhythmic accuracy. It has also allowed me to be able to process and play complicated rhythms and odd time signatures far more quickly than previously.

An example of this is when we studied Eastern European music, particularly Avishai Cohen’s piece ‘Eleven Wives’ (2008), a piece in 11/8 in which each bar is divided into three threes and a two. Being able to articulate these rhythms using konnakol syllables (‘Ta-ki-ta’ for the threes and ‘Ta-ka’ for the two) helped internalise the rhythm far more rapidly than any other method.

It has also developed my compositional process, as it has made elements such as odd time signatures, which I would have previously not known how to write effectively in, accessible. This is why I chose to compose my piece ‘Stacks’ in 5, as I wanted to challenge myself, yet I also felt confident I could accomplish it with this new tool set.

The core groove of this composition is based on a 3-speed compositional idea I was introduced to by Asaf Sirkis (2019b). This concept involves taking a grouping (Jathis), in this case five, and then taking this grouping through subdivisions (Gatis) alongside a steady pulse – crotchets to quavers to semi-quavers. This concept is exampled here:

An example of moving through different Gatis (subdivisions):

This forms the basis of the groove, as at different points in the piece, the three subdivisions occur simultaneously. This is clear in the drum groove – with a crotchet pulse in the right hand (5/4), whilst the bass drum and snare play within the grid of 5/8, or even 5/16. Throughout the piece, the bass and piano parts move through these various ‘gatis’. This process aims to control the song’s momentum, as a change in the ‘gati’ creates a sense of increased or decreased tempo. I chose to have the drum part maintain a similar groove throughout the piece, anchoring it and allowing the shifting momentum to move freely within the other parts. An example of the changing momentum is in the bass part throughout the solo section, as it builds from the initial 4-over-5 polyrhythmic idea (a matter I will discuss below), gradually moving through the different ‘gatis’ to build the intensity of the accompaniment.

The drum groove (in 5/4 and 5/8):

The bass part:

The final section of my piece is perhaps the clearest example of this, as it is built around having these three different speeds occurring at the same time across different parts, seen most clearly in the drum part, which moves through the three stages:

Polyrhythms, “the simultaneous presentation of two or more conflicting pulse trains” (Handel, 1984:470), are another area in which my understanding and ability to play have been greatly improved due to my research into Carnatic music.

The use of konnakol allows me to incorporate polyrhythms into my playing and compositions with far greater freedom than previously. I have always enjoyed listening to music in odd time signatures, but with an implication of 4/4 present, songs such as Seven Days by Sting (1993). So, I wanted to include an element of this in my composition, seen in the bass line. Having polyrhythmic elements in a piece allows for the sense of tension and resolution to be created before any harmony is added. It also creates a sense of intrigue within the piece, as depending on what instrument one is listening to, the piece may seem to be in either a four feel or a five feel.

Konnakol is an immensely useful tool for accurately learning/ processing polyrhythms, as demonstrated:

Melodic and harmonic influence

When discussing the influence that the melodic and harmonic elements of Indian music have had on me, I will concentrate on my musical creation/ composing.

My composition ‘Stacks’ was deeply influenced by the concept of Ragas. Ragas are

described by their tonal qualities (pitch order or intervallic structure in ascending and descending formations) and melodic qualities (notes which receive emphasis, notes which are used transitionally, and melodic patterns which are highly specific and which characterize a given raga).

(Kalmanovitch, 2005:147)

Ragas are seen as far more than a collection of musical notes (Swaras), rather a raga “must be aesthetically pleasing” and “have a distinct character, a sentiment” (Massey & Massey, 1993:104), with many having names “which refer distinctly to certain seasons, times of day or night, moods…” (Kaufman, 1965).

When performing using a raga, personal expression is achieved through how an artist may “perform shakes, oscillations and embellishments (“gamakas”)” to “[form] phrases” and “[proceed] from one note to the next” (Mutatkar & Kahn, 1978:121). The usage of ‘gamakas’ “richly embellishes a melodic structure” (Massey & Massey, 1993:96) and is crucial to the sound and performance of this music. Mindful of this, I didn’t want to write these ‘gamakas’ into the piece and so lose the personal expression element; rather, I instructed my saxophonist to play with using ornamentation as he deemed appropriate, ensuring what he played was his expression, rather than mine, following and respecting the traditional approach to playing in this style.

The melody of my piece is based on the Jaijaivanti raga, as recorded by the Masseys (1993:100):

I was intrigued by this raga, as it involves both a minor and major third and seventh – the notes used in a raga are often different when ascending (aroha) and descending (avroha). Putting forward both an Ionian and Dorian sonority (when thought of using a jazz modal system).  
Another interesting aspect of Ragas is that, due to the nature of the instruments used, particularly the use of a drone, once the tonic is decided upon, it is “impossible” to change (Massey & Massey, 1993:97). I included this element in my composition by not moving around tonal centres as often as would normally be the case in Western music. This forced me not to rely too heavily on harmonic changes for interest and developed my melodic writing.

I also took inspiration from the structural elements of Ragas, particularly ‘alāp’. Alāp is “a kind of free improvisation in which the notes of the raga are gradually explored”, even being described as “the most beautiful aspect of Indian music” (Mutatkar & Kahn, 1978:124). This takes place at the start of a performance to introduce the raga being used, beginning with the raga being played note for note in the original order, becoming increasingly complex improvisation. The first section of my piece incorporates this concept alongside a ‘free jazz’ influenced approach. Rather than committing totally to the concept of totally “breaking down jazz conventions” (Brooks, 2023) that free jazz entails, I wanted to create a moment in the piece where the band was reacting to the saxophonist’s improvisation. I found this to be an interesting process, as rarely in Western music will you have a piece that so explicitly lays out the basis of the improvisation.

Cuban, Brazilian and African Music

My second area of research was into Cuban, Brazilian, and African music. Each of these cultures has its own heritage, styles and sounds, and my research has shown just how vast each of these topics are. And whilst I have grouped them in this composition and discussion, it is not because I think they are the same, far from it, but because I wanted the opportunity to explore each of them in more detail and found that they worked very well together. Likely due to shared roots, as I will discuss below. I will consider each of these areas according to the structure of my second composition – Cuban, Brazilian, and African.

Cuba – Clave and rhythms

Whilst the word clave first refers to “the idiophonic hardwood sticks used in rumba and son”, I will refer to it as “the ostinato [played], in either its “two-three” or “three-two” forms (with the rumba clave differing slightly from the son clave)”. The use of clave has been a part of my musical exploration for several years, yet researching its history, which is rooted in “West African Music”, and seeing that the pattern is “an adaptation of the 12/8 “standard time-line” that is common in Afro-Cuban music like Palo chants” (Manuel, 2009:193-194), has given me a deeper understanding and appreciation of it.

Composing with a clave in mind was both challenging and enjoyable. Bearing in mind that “the clave sticks and even the audible clave pattern need not be present for a piece to be ‘in clave’” (Manuel, 2009:194), I started by writing a bass part/groove with the 3-2 son clave in mind. In this process, I wanted to ensure that I kept the clave feel throughout, whilst having a bass line that complemented the clave, rather than simply playing it. I was particularly inspired by Kenny Dorham’s ‘Afrodesia’ (1955), and the bass line/ piano part he wrote to a clave.

Once I had this bass line, I wanted to add more interest by incorporating what is known in New Orleans music as the ‘Big Four”. This is “an emphasis on the fourth beat of every other measure” (Deloeac, 2013). Hence, the bass line starts on beat 4. This creates a hemiola-like effect and introduces some ambiguity about where beat one falls. This rhythmic ambiguity was inspired, in part, by my first time properly listening to African music earlier this year. I struggled to find a sense of pulse, let alone identify where beat one was. I sought to include a small sense of this feeling in my piece. To internalise this, I found it very helpful to sing the bass line whilst clapping the 3:2 clave. 

The bass line:

Incorporating the clave concept into my playing has greatly improved my independence, particularly by playing the clave on different limbs alongside other rhythms such as the cascara.  As demonstrated here:

These exercises not only allow me to improve my independence but also my ‘feel’, as the clave becomes increasingly internalised.

Brazil – Partido Alto

The second section of my composition is influenced by the Brazilian style/ rhythm ‘Partido alto’. Partido alto can be considered as a “[way] of accenting Samba” (Adolfo, 1993), being “designed to be played by smaller ensembles in a pop music context.” (Dohearty, 2019). It is also a samba style that involves “improvised long verses between refrains” (Olsen & Sheehy, 2000:266) and so lends itself to fusion with jazz. The rhythm I have used is as follows (the offbeat and onbeat sections can be changed around):  

Despite having never composed in this style, I found that the rhythm lent itself to melody writing, perhaps due to the tension and resolve that the syncopation creates. This can be seen at the start of this new section, especially as having the melody start by simply playing the rhythm (to create a smooth transition between the two sections) was immediately interesting. The combination of this rhythmic influence with elements from jazz music, such as harmony and structure, allowed this section to come together quickly.

Another way that I wanted to create a sense of Brazilian samba music was by having the bass act as a ‘Surdo’ – the “drum that marks the time” (De Douvan, 2005) in this style of music. Achieved by emphasising beats one and three, with a slight bossa nova groove. This allows for the other parts to play the Partido Alto rhythm with greater freedom, without worrying about losing the pulse.

African influence

Whilst the African influence in this composition is perhaps less obvious, it is ultimately at the heart of the piece, with all that I have spoken of above rooted in African music. Vassberg (1976:35) comments on how Africa has had “a profound effect on the culture” of Brazil and Cuba, the effect being “nowhere more noticeable than in music”. Tragically, this influence was largely due to the slave trade, with “slaves [contributing] heavily to Cuban musical culture” (Olsen & Sheehy, 2000); this is also true regarding Brazil.

The final section of the piece is a ‘call-and-response’ between the drums and the rest of the band. This section arose because ‘call-and-response’ is “a major characteristic of African musical idioms” (Chernoff, 1979:55). A similar concept is also found in jazz – ‘trading fours’ (heard in songs such as ‘Four’ (Davis, 1959)). This section subtly creates the sense of a “master drummer” and a “chorus” (the drums and the rest of the band). Given that “in African music, the chorus or response is a rhythmic phrase which occurs regularly”, whilst the “rhythms of a lead singer or musician may vary and are cast against the steady repetition of the response” (Chernoff, 1979:55), in my piece the chorus section is the same every time, giving the drums more freedom in improvisation. 

The beauty of this is that “by staying within his assigned rhythms” and their simplicity, “the Kidi drummer ensures not only that he will not undercut the effectiveness of the master drummer”, in that his part is not distracting the listener from the part of the master drummer. It also means that “the responsive potential of the Kidi’s rhythm will remain stable enough for effective exploitation by the master drummer” (Chernoff, 1979:58). I was struck by the great effect this could have in supporting a soloist as a member of the rhythm section when playing a jazz tune and have sought to include more repetition (with variation) in my playing.

Conclusion

To conclude, I have deeply enjoyed researching and learning about these cultures and their music. This experience has deepened my understanding of rhythm, harmony, musicality, and many other areas. It has been a challenging yet fruitful task to incorporate these influences into my playing. One key takeaway has been how deeply rooted music is in everyday life for these nations. Seeing children make music I couldn’t even understand when listening was wonderfully humbling and has pushed me to try to include my musical practice in everyday life. I look forward to continuing to learn about these styles, as well as others, so that I may appreciate them more and grow in my musicianship because of them. 

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