Compare the use of Eastern influences in rhythm, form and structure, in the work of two twentieth-century Western composers, using specific musical examples.
During the 20th century, there was an influx of composers delving into the music of the East, and incorporating certain elements into their compositions. While this interest could be seen more sparingly further in the past (think Classical era, with Mozart’s Rondo Alla Turca (K. 331)), it was in this period that these eastern influences began to notably influence western music. Among the most significant figures were Messiaen, Debussy, Bartók, Holst, Scriabin, Stravinsky, Ravel, Prokofiev, Cage, Britten and many such acclaimed composers, as they drew inspiration from Asian, Middle-Eastern and North African sources. These composers appropriated Eastern melodic modes, rhythmic patterns, timbral palettes (such as instrument choices), and cultural philosophies to expand western musical language. There was Debussy, greatly inspired by music from the Orient, and Gustav Holst, who showed great respect for Indian influences by learning Sanskrit in order to translate scriptures for himself (S. Johnson, 2024). Ravel, who was inspired by Debussy, was consequently led to explore Oriental music, and he was impressed by Gypsy music, Gamelan music, and Arabian tales (MacBean, 2018). Ravel was also inspired by Rimsky-Korsakov’s orchestral masterpiece titled ‘Scheherazade’, and he made several attempts to place it at the centre of his compositions. In the following decades, as cultural exchanges deepened and ethnomusicology became standard, experimental composers such as Olivier Messiaen had the opportunity to take inspiration from India and Japan, and John Cage from Chinese culture (Wilridge, 2024). These influences that were derived from many cultures across the East spun into a web of cross-cultural references, that were passed down and are still observable in Western classical music today. We will now explore some of these influences in depth.
Before the 20th century, many leading minds of the west had already taken a keen interest in India’s culture and music. This trend continued into the 20th century, with many renowned composers such as Ravel, Messiaen, Holst, Scriabin, and Debussy showing an increasing fascination in Indian music and culture for a variety of reasons – the unique modal scales (or raagas, to be more precise), the complex rhythmic cycles (tala), abstract concepts such as spirituality, and even certain philosophies. Sufi Inayat Khan, who played the veena, is credited with bringing Indian music to the West, and speaking to him led Debussy and Scriabin to hold Indian music in the highest regard. These interests reflected a wider movement into exoticism, as evidenced by Scriabin even inventing a “mystic chord” of ascending fourths to encapsulate his theosophical beliefs, as he felt that regular major and minor chords could not express them adequately (Massey, 1976:85). Delving into Scriabin’s later works, particularly when he was influenced by theosophy, we can hear the impact in his compositions. Theosophy, a spiritual movement largely derived from the east, from religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism and blended into western esoteric traditions, contains ideologies such as the exploration of the nature of divinity, the universe, and humanity’s purpose, aligning with the shift towards mysticism in Scriabin’s works. “Theosophy, finally, is the fixed eternal sun, and its Society the evanescent comet trying to settle in an orbit to become a planet, ever revolving within the attraction of the sun of truth.” (Blavatsky, 1987:57). One could assume that this idea inspired Scriabin’s composition named Prometheus: The Poem of Fire, as both explore the themes of spiritual transcendence and the pursuit of a greater purpose, metaphorically characterized by the eternal ‘sun’ of knowledge. Prometheus, in Greek mythology, is a titan credited with creating humanity, and stealing fire from the gods to give it to humanity – which aligns with Theosophical beliefs. The usage of the previously mentioned ‘mystic chord’ in this composition, beginning right at the first measure, and then recurring throughout the piece, is what led to it being coined the term ‘the Prometheus chord’.
Like Scriabin, Messiaen took influence from mystical concepts as well, some of which were rooted in Theosophy. However, unlike Scriabin’s influences which were primarily shaped by Theosophy, Messiaen drew from it to a smaller extent, using it as one of the colours on his palette. For example, his Turangalila Symphonie, Op. 81 – the title is a combination of the Sanskrit word Turanga, which has multiple meanings, but in this context refers to a horse, perhaps symbolizing a rhythmic movement of the horse galloping, and Lila, which can be loosely translated as divine play. The title alone gives indication of the Theosophical influence on this piece, although it is mainly Hinduism in this case. However, the rhythmic structuring of this composition is more striking, with the usage of complex rhythmic cycles, irregular time signatures, and additive rhythm (the practice of adding or subtracting beats), which were direct influences from Indian music. Upon discovering the 120 deçî-tâlas (ancient rhythmic cycles) systematized by thirteenth-century theorist Saarangadeva, he extensively studied the Indian taal system, and even introduced the term ‘nonretrogradable rhythm’, which he defines as a group of rhythms that reads identically from left to right and vice versa, presenting exactly the same sequential order of values in either direction. He found it extraordinary that the Hindus were the first to understand and use this concept that is so frequently encountered around us (Messiaen, 1994:76). Concepts such as nonretrogradable rhythms are still in practical use among Classical musicians to date, however the origins of its terminology are not always known.
To pull from other eastern influences in his rhythmic journey, it is worth mentioning Messiaen’s only reference to Japan, which is less discussed than his other eastern influences, yet still significant. After his honeymoon trip to Japan in 1962, he was allured by their Gagaku music, which was the primary influence on his Sept haïkaï, (a seven-part Japanese linked-verse poem). The seven ‘haikus’ of the piece are arranged symmetrically: 1 and 7 are an introduction and coda. 2, 3, 5 and 6 reference Nara Park, Yamanaka, Miyajima and Karuizawa, places that he visited in Japan (T. R-Johnson, 2024). The fourth movement was simply titled ‘Gagaku’ (literally translating to ‘elegant music’; it was imported largely from China to begin with, and became Japan’s ancient court music tradition). Peculiarly, while it has evolved over centuries, it “managed to survive in a form that must make it the oldest continuous orchestral tradition in the world” (Togi, 1971:5). This music uses different instruments that initially share the same melody, but then employs heterophony, letting the different instrument sections add their own ornamentation, ultimately realizing this melody differently. Messiaen illustrates this technique using four layers of texture: the first layer has a trumpet, two oboes, and an English horn to play the main melody in unison, akin to the hichiriki. The second layer, consisting of a piccolo flute and a clarinet playing dissonant intervals in counterpoint, lacks a direct Japanese equivalent and deviates from the heterophony of the ryuuteki, instead opting for polyphony. The third layer has eight violins assigned to play dissonant harmonies on the bridge without vibrato, resembling the syo mouth organ. The fourth layer consists of a four-part polyphony featuring various metal percussion instruments (Irlandini, 2010:200). These layers undergo subtle changes in each cyclic repetition, some being as minute as a chord change. While Messiaen demonstrates an understanding of this music he enjoyed, his rendition does not entirely comply with haikai aesthetics. None of his pieces follow the traditional haiku structure of 5-7-5, leading Irlandini (2010:194) to argue that he never really left his own world of European music. However, in all fairness, Messiaen did not set out to compose a strictly Japanese piece; he simply took inspiration from it, as did most influences discussed so far. In that light, adhering to such rigid structuring may not have been essential to his vision, especially considering he might have appreciated the palindromic structure of haikus (evidenced by his interest in nonretrogradable rhythms).
In conclusion, the 20th century marked a pivotal period of cross-cultural exchange, during which Eastern influences spanning across various regions helped shape Western classical music, infusing a richness and complexity that pushed the boundaries of tradition. This shift in the Western sound cannot be attributed to just a few composers or regions; rather, it was part of a broader, dynamic movement, fuelled by open-minded composers learning and engaging with Eastern cultures, cultivating a network of diverse influences. Complex and cyclic rhythmic structures from regions such as India, East Asia, the Middle East and Africa; modal scales of the Middle East and India; and the exotic timbral soundscapes of the Far East; these diverse traditions played their parts in augmenting Western compositional styles. However, it was imperative that composers seeking to draw from foreign influences fully understood and appreciated the cultural backgrounds of these ideas. A contemporary school of thought suggests that Western Europeans should feel uncomfortable about all these appropriations (S. Johnson, 2024). From my perspective, a sense of respect and acknowledgement, which results in a deep understanding of the culture, is what makes the difference between cultural appropriation and fusion. To reinforce this point – Holst, composer of the one-act opera ‘Savitri’, was only partially successful in his portrayal of the Mahabharata story, however, his rendition might have been stronger if he had more direct engagement with Indian traditions, despite having studied Sanskrit in order to translate texts. Ultimately, unity across cultures demands a level of recognition and respect from both the audience and the composers, in order to transcend cultural barriers and create art that presents diversity wholly.
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